Tracking Troughs and Baking Biscuits:

Women in Meteorology

Shortly after receiving her doctorate in 1949, Joanne Simpson turned the field of meteorology on its head when she proved that hot towers – or tall, anvil shaped cumulonimbus clouds – provide the energy needed to keep the Hadley circulation moving and the trade winds running (Weier). All the while she compromised her own career for her first husband’s and was accused by her own children of being a distant figure in their lives (LeMone). A decade earlier her departmental advisor had told her “no woman has ever gotten a Ph.D. in meteorology, no woman ever will get a Ph.D. in meteorology, there’s no point in your even trying…” ( Taylor , 183).

Since the 1950s Simpson has shown women meteorologists that it is possible for them to be professional scientists, wives and mothers. But she has also shown that having all three comes at a high price. She married twice. Her children were fully grown before they forgave Simpson for the distance and the constant stream of babysitters. By her own admission, Simpson believed for 34 years that her work as a research scientist was at best freakish and at worst a waste of time ( Taylor , 183).

Despite that, Simpson cleared a path in the atmospheric sciences for generations of women. But by providing women with so many options, she forced those serious about a career in meteorology to seek the motivation and support to balance a professional career in science with personal relationships.

Finding that support can be difficult, sometimes impossible. Often, women in the sciences are asked to choose between work and family. A serious career scientist might find it difficult to bake biscuits, fold laundry and bandage scraped knees while tracking troughs and forecasting fronts. Women are too often asked to choose between being great mothers and great researchers.

Beyond that, the discrimination and stereotyping women have had to face often prevented them from entering the sciences in the first place. While women continue to face discrimination today, it isn’t the main factor that determines whether or not they enter higher levels of education in meteorology. Balancing work and family is the main challenge.

Dr. Lourdes Avilés, an assistant professor of meteorology at Plymouth State University , said her struggle to balance work and family was difficult, but made easier by the support of her husband. In fact, Avilés said, supportive personal relationships are the key for anyone seriously interested in the sciences.

There are different models for support. A husband could take care of a home and children, could share career pursuits and family responsibilities equally or could take months or years to care for the family, and then ask his partner to do the same. Whatever the model, the key is that a woman scientist needs to conserve time and energy if she is to pursue her career goals. For a woman to ask this of her partner might be difficult, however, especially while pursuing a career in a field that has only recently begun to accept women.

Although women worked in the weather service throughout much of the last century, w omen trying to pursue careers in meteorology faced bitter discrimination well into the 1970s (Simpson and LeMone, 129). The number of women choosing careers in the physical sciences was extremely low then. Women represented less than 10% of the registered scientists in the United States (Johnson, 109; Obasi, 8). In atmospheric science alone, women made up roughly “4% of the approximately 5,500 professional members of the American Meteorological Society” (Simpson and LeMone, 123). According to Diane Johnson, of the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder , Colorado , the “old myths and stereotypes” of scientists were a major cause of the failure of women to join the field (110).

Some women envisioned a “dedicated scientist” spending all of her time in a laboratory, mumbling arcane concepts to anyone around. This mythical figure chased some women away because those women were “unwilling to make a career choice which is perceived as placing work above family and other human relationships” (Johnson, 110).

Another stereotype had to do with how a woman scientist looked and behaved. Many women imagined that a female scientist wore wrinkled clothes and thick glasses, and had her hair pulled back in an unkempt bun. It was also thought that a female scientist had to be a “loud, aggressive old woman who, by being tough, has made it as a scientist” (Johnson, 110).

In 1974, Joanne Simpson and Margaret LeMone published the first detailed survey of women in meteorology (Obasi, 3). Their research showed that of the 247 women surveyed, all with undergraduate degrees or higher and several years of professional work in meteorology, 32 had Ph.D.’s, 76 had non-student masters’ degrees, and 84 had non-student bachelor’s degrees. The remaining women were candidates for Ph.D.s and masters’ degrees (Obasi, 3; Simpson and LeMone, 122). Of the 576 doctorates awarded to individuals in the field of meteorology between the years of 1971-1976, women made up roughly 3.3% (LeMone, Frisch, and Julian, 178). Simpson and LeMone also discovered that the “conditions and opportunities for women had improved, but that combining family life and career was a challenge” (Obasi, 3; Simpson and LeMone, 131).

A decade later, another survey of women in meteorology was conducted. The challenges of discrimination had improved, but the challenges of balancing the perceived responsibilities of home with the demands of research persisted.

The survey results showed that the number of women pursuing careers in the field had increased, with approximately 500 women active in meteorology (LeMone and Waukau, 1275). The survey also found that by the 1980s, 10% of women graduating from college were earning a bachelor’s or masters’ degree in meteorology, and 4-5% of women were being awarded a doctorate. Discrimination against women had decreased, and had all but disappeared among women with doctorates. While one-time contacts with clients or the general public remained a source of some discrimination, according to the survey, many of the earlier challenges facing women had disappeared (LeMone and Waukau, 1275).

Interestingly enough, part-time work proved a major problem for the latest generation of women meteorologists. While it allowed them to balance work with family, it prevented them from making major advances in their career (LeMone and Waukau, 1275).

Avilés said that she has seen many women in the atmospheric sciences choose less taxing career paths. More women pursue broadcasting, she said, because it only requires an undergraduate degree. Many women stop after receiving a masters’ degree, as well, she said.

Even if a woman does receive her Ph.D., the journey is not over. The demands of research, of teaching and of work as a serious scientist pose real problems for anyone trying to balance a family life. The traditional roles of wife, mother and homemaker cannot apply.

According to the response of meteorology students in the United States to a questionnaire sent out in 1997 by the World Meteorological Organization, approximately 20-25% of those entering the fields of meteorology and hydrology were women (“Participation,” 2245). The World Meteorological Organization also reported at their Second Conference on Women in Meteorology and Hydrology, in March 2003, that women were still finding it difficult to maintain a career and family simultaneously (Obasi, 3).

Even with the increased interest in meteorology, the number of women entering the profession decreases slightly as the level of education increases. Women earned 28.9% of undergraduate degrees in the atmospheric sciences in 2001. Masters’ degrees were slightly down from that, at 28.6%. The difference is somewhat more pronounced among Ph.D. recipients, however. Only 24.1% of doctoral recipients were women in 2001. The trend remains the same throughout prior years, and data was not available for years after 2001 (National Science Foundation).

As Avilés said, many female meteorology students find it easier to enter broadcasting, to stop at their undergraduate or masters’ degree. In fact, she said, balancing family and work is one of the few challenges still facing women as they enter the field. Old stereotypes have all but disappeared – at least for meteorologists, perhaps not for physicists – and blatant discrimination is practically a thing of the past, she said.

Today, women face basic questions about the lives they hope to lead. Do they want children and a family? If they do, are they comfortable placing their children in daycare? Finding a family member to care for them during the day? Leaving them with their partner?

By answering these very personal, very private questions, the role of women in the meteorology, in the sciences and in our society as a whole will be further defined. No longer do women struggle simply against persecution. Today, they wrestle with the many options before them.

When Joanne Simpson took her Ph.D. more than 56 years ago, the culture of the sciences was almost entirely different. Today, women in meteorology face more options than ever before, but those very options can serve to restrict them.

Works Cited

Avilés, Lourdes , Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Meteorology at Plymouth State University .

Personal Interview, conducted Nov. 18, 2005.

Johnson, Diane. “Women in Meteorology: A Small Glimpse at the Large-Scale Pattern.”

Weatherwise . June 1975: 108-113.

LeMone, Margaret A. “Interview of Joanne Simpson.” American MeteorologicalSociety:

University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. 6 Sept. 1989. 22 Nov. 2005

LeMone, Margaret A., Joan V. Frisch and Lesley T. Julian. “Tracking Women and the

Weather.” Weatherwise . Aug. 1984: 176-181.

LeMone, Margaret A. and Patricia L. Waukau. “Women in Meteorology.” Bulletin of the

American Meteorological Society . 63. 11 (1982): 1266-1276.

“Integrated Post-Secondary Data Education System, Completions Survey 1994-2001.”

National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics with

special tabulations by the U.S. Dept. of Education, National Center for Education

Statistics. 2001. 10 Dec. 2005.

Obasi, Professor G.O.P., Secretary-General of the World Meteorological Society.

“Welcome Address on the Occasion of the Opening of the Second Conference on

Women in Meteorology and Hydrology.” 24 March 2003. 22 Nov. 2005.

“The Participation of Women in Meteorology and Hydrology in the United States : The

U.S. Response to a World Meteorological Organization Questionnaire.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 78. 10 (1997): 2241-2245.

Simpson, Joanne and Margaret LeMone. “Women in Meteorology.” Bulletin of the

American Meteorological Society . 55. 2 (1974): 122-131.

Taylor, Edward F. “Joanne Simpson: Pathfinder for a Generation.” Weatherwise . Aug.

1984: 182-183, 206-207.

Weier, John. “On the Shoulders of Giants: Joanne Simpson (1923-present).” NASA:

Earth Observatory. David Herring. 23 April 2004. 22 Nov. 2005

The English language is deeply rooted with words that have sexist connotations which lead those who speak the language to subconsciously categorize people by their gender. “The language that a cultures uses is telltale evidence of the values and beliefs of that culture.”(Nilsen 277). This leads me to think about the relationship and the impact that our language has on our society and culture. Does our sexist language contribute to or have a significant impact on how we think of men and women and is it necessary to have a gender neutral language in today’s society? Our society should recognize and be concerned about our extremely gender-bias language and the growing impact that it is having on our society by perpetuating negative gender stereotypes.

What does it mean to have a gender-neutral language? Creating a gender-neutral language would mean that the terms we use would not specify a specific gender or it would be inclusive to both sexes. Gender-neutral terms would refer to “someone” rather then to just males or just females. A gender-specific language refers to one gender however in a non-sexist way. For example, a female business executive will be leading the meeting today. Because the example did not use busines sman it is not considered bias. As the article “Sexism in English: A 1990’s Update” pointed out the English language is very much a gender-bias. This means that many of the terms that the English language uses are exclusive to a specific gender, most often females. Using such words support bias implications and imply irrelevant gender classification and negative stereotypes.

Commonly used gender-bias words often have “man” within them, for example policeman, fireman and mankind. These words classify a group of people as male even if the group consists of both females and males . They also suggest that males are superior to females by not being inclusive to both genders which lead to negative sexual connotations. Other examples of common gender-bias terms include.

Gender-Bias Term Gender-Neutral Term

Mankind Humankind

Policeman Police officer

Fireman Firefighter

Chairman Chairperson

Freshmen First year

Waiter/Waitress Server

Snowman Snowperson

Mailman Mail carrier

“You guys” “ya’ll”

Businessman Business executive

Steward/Stewardess Flight attendant

Congressman Congressional representative

Salesman Salesperson/ Sales Clerk

Caveman Prehistoric people

Milkman Milk vender/carrier

Repairman Repairer/repairperson

Fisherman Fisher

Forman Boss/leader

First basemen First base player

Brotherhood Kinship

Manning Staffing

Manpower Workforce

Actress Actor

Security man Security officer

Cowboy Rancher

Gunman Shooter

Mountain man Mountaineer

Weatherman Meteorologist

Anchorperson News reporter

Masculine based words reinforce the idea that men are more powerful and have higher priority over women. A women’s femininity becomes invisible when they accept being categorized by male gender-biased terms. It also means that women are only being recognized when classified in a masculine group. However can women truly be included or accepted as an equal to men? Within our society we know that even if women are categorized within male based terms it does not mean that men and women are treated as equals. If this were true, sexist connotations would no longer exist and we wouldn’t be discussing the need for a gender-neutral language. Women are often referred to by the use of male base terms but if a male is referred to as female it is taken as an extreme insult. This is just another example that supports the fact that our language is sexist. It once again implies that males are the stronger more dominant sexual beings and females are the weaker more docile and insignificant gender. Some people feel as though women who are willing to be classified by male based terms do so just to feel included in a higher status? However there are very few commonly used gender-neutral terms that refer to women so therefore they have no choice as to how they are labeled. I think that if a woman can not be recognized by her appropriate gender in our own language then how can we expect women to be treated equally within our society? How are men and women ever going to be considered equal sexual beings when women still receive unequal salary and health care benefits and are seen as objects of lesser value? The English language is the starting point to the expansion of sexist stereotypes in our culture. I think because the gender-biased terms we use in our language are so ingrained in our minds the people who use sexist terms are necessarily sexist themselves. Very few people who use sexist words do so with bad intentions, it is just subconsciously done so. But we must ask ourselves if using such language will produce significant consequences within our society. In order to determine this you must also consider if language reflects or enhances sexism in our society. Sherryl Kleinman who wrote “Why Sexist Language Matters” believes that “language merely reflects reality and so we should ignore our words and work on changing our unequal gender arrangements that are reflected in our language.” Well this is a valid point and a popular opinion I believe that changing the structure of our language may alter our social practice but more likely will make people aware of the existing sexism in our language. This can be accomplished by replacing generic gender-bias terms with gender-neutral terms such as in the examples above. Why is it important to have a gender-neutral or gender-specific language? Because our language is so deeply rooted within our culture it affects the lyrics of songs and the words used in advertisements which perpetuate negative stereotypes. These negative stereotypes then influence how children interpret sex roles. Language is immediately shaping and determining what children learn are appropriate social expectations according to their gender. The gender stereotypes that are learned at a young age are reinforced by both our language and our culture which creates a continuous loop of negative gender stereotypes. According to Artz, Munger and Purdy “research indicates that sexist language, by itself, can produce negative consequences. Research indicates that it suggests superiority of the masculine over the feminine.” “it results in women being ignored, deprecated, or negatively stereotyped.” This research proves that our langue should be altered if we expected to change gender stereotypes in our society.

Sexism in the English language may be difficult to recognize at first because it is do embedded in our speech. Nevertheless sometimes it is the subtle forms of sexism such as language that contribute to the reinforcement and sustaining of gender stereotypes. Our concern about sexism in the English language should be focused on words that describe or categorized a group as a whole based on gender through its connotations. I’m not implying that the English language be completely re-written however written and verbal changes should be made by replacing gender-bias terms with gender-neutral terms. I believe this will ultimately help sustain the idea that women are not objects but equal sexual beings.

Bibliography

Artz, Nancy, Jeanne Munger, Warren Purdy. “Gender Issues in Advertising Language.” Women & Language. 22 (1999): 20-26.
Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Lamson Library

Hardman, M.J. “The Sexist Circuits of English.” Humanist 56 (1996): 25-32.
Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Lamson Library

Kleinman, Sherry. “Why Sexist Language Matters.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 25 (2002): 299-304.
Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Lamson Library

Nielson, Allen P. “Sexism in English: A 1990s Update.” Reading Women’s Lives.
Pearson Custom Publishing, 2005.

Sankis, Lizabeth M, Thomas A Widiger, Elizabeth M Corbitt. “Gender Bias in the English Language.” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 77 (1999): 1289-1295.
Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Lamson Library

Antioch …. Think Again

Let’s take a typical scenario which involves date rape. Jen goes to a University and she is getting ready for a night out on the town with her friends. She picks out a slightly revealing outfit to wear, applies her makeup, and ventures off to a party at the hottest fraternity on campus. She has a few drinks that night; a couple of those are drinks she has picked up off of a table which later she finds out had a date rape drug in it called rohypnol or “roofies.” She is raped that night because of her inability to be aware of what is going on. I’m sure many women across the world have experienced what Jen has gone through; a horrible, life changing experience. Policies are made throughout society to prevent date rape but in reality there is no cure or policy that will cure the hate crime of date rape. Policies such as the “ Antioch ,” featured in Swept Awake! Negotiating Sex on Campus will never work. I will prove why the antitouch policy is inadequate throughout my research after providing some background information on what date rape exactly is.

According to the Wikpedia dictionary acquaintance rape or “date rape,” which is the term I will be using throughout my paper, is non consensual sexual activity between two people who already know each other, whether it is two people on a date, a friend, or in a marriage. Date rape is a terrifying thing because the victim will be raped by an acquaintance or friend. Date rape is becoming increasingly common throughout the United States . Felicia Romeo has included in her article, Acquaintance Rape on College and University Campuses, “three-quarters of all rapes and sexual assaults against women, the perpetrator is known to the victim” (Romeo).

Date rape is often associated with drugs that alter a person’s inhibition. These drugs can be extremely dangerous. Womenshealth.gov states, “The drugs often have no color, smell, or taste and are easily added to flavored drinks without the victim’s knowledge.” This is terrifying because women can be at a party and acquire a drink without even knowing there is a drug mixed into it. The effects of Rohypnol are dizziness, nausea, sleepiness, and the scariest effect is you can’t remember what happened while you were drugged (Date rape drugs). A rapist drug of choice is royhypnol, because the victim will not remember the attack. Statistics tell you how many people are being raped, but what about the instances that are not even reported because of the loss of memory while it was happening? Date rape is terrifying and complicated because you can be drugged and attacked and not even remember, letting the rapist get away with it. It seems like with all this new technology and hard work scientists have done to invent new drugs; rapists exploit the purpose of these drugs and use it towards their criminal advantage. Years ago I highly doubt they heard of rohypnol.

Now in the 21 st century, rape is on many women’s minds. We fear of being drugged at a party or raped in an alley. Society seems like it is becoming much more dangerous than ever before. Women these days have to take precautions everywhere they go. We hear professionals, friends, and family say, “Don’t walk alone at night,” “carry a whistle with you at all times,” and “walk with a friend.” Yes, those statements are useful advice, and most women follow those instructions, but it just seems like we are always walking in the shadow of fear.

As I said earlier in my paper, rape is a non consensual sexual activity, so obviously consent in some sort should precede the act of sexual intercourse, whether both partners in a relationship are being swept away by the moment, or a person asks if one wants to engage in sexual intercourse. On that note, I disagree with a part of the article, Swept Awake! Negotiating Sex on Campus by Bonnie Pfister who examined the Antioch policy. “The emerging new code includes the apparently controversial idea that potential lovers should ask before foisting sexual attention on their partners, and that partners should clearly answer ‘yes’ or ‘no.’” I disagree with that statement. I do not think that people who are in a committed relationship should have to verbally state the words, “yes” or “no” to sexual intercourse every time. You should not have to stop in the heat of the moment and clearly ask permission to have sex or not. The act of passion clearly states both partners desire sexual intercourse. When Calli Cary an Antioch spokeswoman states, “The assumption that this policy is about women saying no to men is based on the idea that men initiate sex all the time. But I know there are men on campus who feel the women are very aggressive.” That is exactly how I felt the first time I read, Swept Awake! Negotiating Sex on Campus. This policy clearly states that the men are always the ones asking for sex, and in reality there are many women who are the initiators. I feel the Antioch policy almost demeans women; we as women should not have to be told a policy of when and where to say no or yes. We do not need a policy to be told the obvious. I feel women are strong enough to stand up and voice their opinion, and no policy should state that is what should be done.

If I were to rewrite my own version of the Antioch policy I would have clearly stated that men and women are both the initiators and even women can be the aggressors. But again I still believe there is no policy that can prevent date rape, or any rape for that instance. To prevent this hate crime we need to step up as a society and work together. There are policies everywhere; you don’t see people following the rules just because it’s a policy, sometimes you see people rebelling just because they don’t want to conform to a rule or policy. I feel to help prevent date rape, places such as campuses need to step it up a level with security. Police officers should be patrolling streets at all times, even the less populated areas on campus, because those are where rapists carry out the crime. There should be mandatory self defense classes for women, which are incorporated into college curriculums. This would teach women what to do incase of an attack. I feel by negotiating an active policy as this one, date rape could decrease. Policies which make campuses act instead of a policy where they don’t require students to do anything would be more beneficial and successful for campuses around the world. I believe my policy would work a lot better than the “Antioch” policy because it’s teaching women to stand up for themselves, instead of being “infantilized” by being told to say the simple yet complicated words, “yes” or “no.”